Bhopal Gas Leak

Table of Contents Introduction Cause of the Disaster Effects on the Environment References Introduction The Bhopal Gas Leak is the worst environmental disaster in our history. This disaster occurred on December 12, 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL), a pesticide-manufacturing factory in Bhopal, India, and was caused by a leak of methyl isocyanate gas (MIC) and other lethal gases from the plant (Rosenberg, 2011). The gas cloud emanating from this leak contained nearly 15 metric tons of MIC and spread over the vast and densely populated Bhopal city.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Bhopal Gas Leak specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The gas leak killed at least 4,000 people immediately and caused health complications for at least 50,000 inhabitants with some agencies reporting a figure of 500,000. These health complications have resulted in the death of more than 15,000 people over the last two decades while a large number (estimated at 100,000) still suffers from the effects of the gas leak, with ten people dying every year (Broughton, 2005). Chemicals released during the leakage were deposited in the area around the plant and have continued to seep into the groundwater. Other sources of pollution include leaks from isolation material and residues as the containers used for storing them are slowly wearing out. Tests carried out by UCIL in 1989 showed that soil and water in the Bhopal neighborhood were poisonous to fish and other aquatic life. In 1994, studies indicated that 21% of the UCIL premises were highly contaminated with toxic chemicals. Apart from humans, animals were also affected by the MIC leak: at least 2,000 animals, both wild and domesticated, were found dead. Cause of the Disaster The gas leak is said to have begun when water entered a tank that contained 42 tons of MIC, an ingredient in the production of pesticide. This contact led to an exothermic reaction that e levated temperatures inside the tank to more than 200 0C, leading to a corresponding elevation in pressure. This caused the tank to vent, releasing poisonous gases into the atmosphere, the spread of the leaked gas was hastened by the northwesterly winds blowing over Bhopal (Rosenberg, 2011). The explanation as to how water entered the MIC tank has varied depending on the investigating agency. Union Carbide, the major shareholder in the firm, stated that such a large amount of water could only enter the tank through sabotage by an employee. Somebody intentionally put water inside the tank leading to a reaction and eventually a gas leak. However, the Indian government accused Union Carbide of not taking adequate security measures to avert or control a disaster. For example, the company should have installed six safety systems that would either prevent or contain the disaster, none of them worked correctly that night.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's se e if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Besides, the company switched off safety controls to reduce their expenses- including the MIC tank cooler that would have lessened the severity of the gas leak. The number of casualties was high due to the dense population in the Bhopal area, said to be more 900,000 and a warning siren that was started was immediately put off allegedly to prevent panic. Most of the Bhopal residents were asleep when trouble began at the pesticide plant and many only woke up because they heard their children coughing from the fumes. As the residents woke up, they felt a burning sensation at the throat while some chocked from the smoke. People ran in all directions, unsure of which way to go, amidst the confusion, families became separated and many people fell unconscious and were trampled upon (Rosenberg, 2011). Effects on the Environment Even before the gas leak, the area surrounding the plant was used for depositing toxic ch emicals and this led to the abandoning of wells in the vicinity of the plant in 1982. During the leak, nearly 27 tons of MIC gas escaped into the air and spread over the heavily populated city of Bhopal, spreading over a 30 square mile area. The plant was closed between 1985 and 1986, during which most of the pipes and drums were sold off, however, the MIC and pesticide tanks are still in the site, as well as several tanks used to store various residues (Broughton, 2005). These tanks have worn out and the isolated material is falling out and is being dispersed into the surrounding water systems. The isolated material contains several heavy and/or toxic elements that include naphthol, nickel, lead, mercury, and other hydrocarbon compounds such as hexachlorobenzene, most of which can cause nervous system breakdown, liver and kidney infections and perhaps cancer in the coming years. In fact, several studies have indicated that the water and soil in the area are highly polluted (Brought on, 2005). Today, the location and its environs are still polluted with thousands of tons poisonous material, these have found their way into water systems that are used by the local population. A recent visit by the BBC revealed that some wells in the area even contain nearly 500 times the recommended limit of these pollutants, however, the locals continue to use this water as they have no other choice (Vickers, 2004). The population around the UCIL plant still suffers from various diseases not common among persons living in other areas (Morehouse Subramaniam, 1986).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Bhopal Gas Leak specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More References Broughton, E. (2005). The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: a review. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, Vol. 4, No. 6. Morehouse, W., Subramaniam, M. A., and the Citizens’ Commission on Bhopal. (1986). The Bhopal tragedy: what re ally happened and what it means for American workers and communities at risk. NJ: Council on International and Public Affairs. Rosenberg, J. (2011). 1984 – Huge Poison Gas Leak in Bhopal, India. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/huge-poison-gas-leak-bhopal-india-1779415 Vickers, P. (2004). Bhopal ‘faces risk of poisoning’. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4010511.stm This essay on Bhopal Gas Leak was written and submitted by user N0mad to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Opposition to the War of 1812 From Americans

Opposition to the War of 1812 From Americans When the United States declared war against Britain in June 1812, the vote on the declaration of war in the Congress was fairly close, reflecting how unpopular the war was to large segments of the American public. Though one of the main reasons for the war had to do with the rights of sailors on the high seas and the protection of American shipping, the senators and representatives from the maritine states of New England tended to vote against the war. Sentiment for war was perhaps strongest in the western states and territories, where a faction known as the War Hawks believed that the United States could invade present day Canada and seize territory from the British. The debate about the war had been going on for many months, with newspapers, which tended to be highly partisan in that era, proclaiming pro-war or anti-war positions. The declaration of war was signed by President James Madison on June 18, 1812, but for many that did not settle the matter. Opposition to the war continued. Newspapers blasted the Madison administration, and some state governments went so far as to essentially obstruct the war effort. In some cases opponents to the war engaged in protests, and in one noteworthy incident, a mob in Baltimore attacked a group which opposed the war. One of the victims of the mob violence in Baltimore, who suffered serious injuries from which he never fully recovered, was the father of Robert E. Lee. Newspapers Attacked the Madison Administration Move Toward War The War of 1812 began against a backdrop of intense political battling within the United States. The Federalists of New England were opposed to the idea of war, and the Jeffersonian Republicans, including President James Madison, were very suspicious of them. A huge controversy broke out when it was revealed that the Madison administration had paid a former British agent for information on Federalists and their suspected connections to the British government. The information provided by the spy, a shady character named John Henry, never amounted to anything that could be proven. But the bad feelings engendered by Madison and members of his administration influenced partisan newspapers early in 1812. Northeastern newspapers regularly denounced Madison as corrupt and venal. There was a strong suspicion among the Federalists that Madison and his political allies wanted to go to war with Britain to bring the United States closer to the France of Napoleon Bonaparte. Newspapers on the other side of the argument argued that the Federalists were an English party in the United States that wanted to splinter the nation and somehow return it to British rule. Debate over the war - even after it had been declared - dominated the summer of 1812. At a public gathering for the Fourth of July in New Hampshire, a young New England attorney, Daniel Webster, gave an oration which was quickly printed and circulated. Webster, who had not yet run for public office, denounced the war, but made a legal point: It is now the law of the land, and as such we are bound to regard it. State Governments Opposed the War Effort One of the arguments against the war was that the United States was simply not prepared, as it had a very small army. There was an assumption that state militias would bolster the regular forces, but as the war began the governors of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts refused to comply with the federal request for militia troops. The position of the New England state governors was that the president of the United States could only requisition the state militia to defend the nation in the event of an invasion, and no invasion of the country was imminent. The state legislature in New Jersey passed a resolution condemning the declaration of war, terming it inexpedient, ill-timed, and most dangerously impolitic, sacrificing at once countless blessings. The legislature in Pennsylvania took the opposite approach, and passed a resolution condemning the New England governors who were opposing the war effort. Other state governments issued resolutions taking sides. And it is clear that in the summer of 1812 the United States was going to war despite a large split in the country. A Mob in Baltimore Attacked Opponents of the War In Baltimore, a thriving seaport at the beginning of the war, public opinion generally tended to favor the declaration of war. In fact, privateers from Baltimore were already setting sail to raid British shipping in the summer of 1812, and the city would eventually become, two years later, the focus of a British attack. On June 20, 1812, two days after war was declared, a Baltimore newspaper, the Federal Republican, published a blistering editorial denouncing the war and the Madison administration. The article angered many citizens of the city, and two days later, on June 22, a mob descended on the newspapers office and destroyed its printing press. The publisher of the Federal Republican, Alexander C. Hanson, fled the city for Rockville, Maryland. But Hanson was determined to return and continue publishing his attacks on the federal government. With a group of supporters, including two notable veterans of the Revolutionary War, James Lingan and General Henry Lee (the father of Robert E. Lee), Hanson arrived back in Baltimore a month later, on July 26, 1812. Hanson and his associates moved into a brick house in the city. The men were armed, and they essentially fortified the house, fully expecting another visit from an angry mob. A group of boys gathered outside the house, shouting taunts and throwing stones. Guns, presumably loaded with blank cartridges, were fired from an upper floor of the house to disperse the growing crowd outside. The stone throwing became more intense, and windows of the house were shattered. The men in the house began shooting live ammunition, and a number of people in the street were wounded. A local doctor was killed by a musket ball. The mob was driven to a frenzy. Responding to the scene, the authorities negotiated the surrender of the men in the house. About 20 men were escorted to the local jail, where they were housed for their own protection. A mob assembled outside the jail on the night of July 28, 1812, forced its way inside, and attacked the prisoners. Most of the men were severely beaten, and James Lingan, an elderly veteran of the American Revolution, was killed, reportedly by being struck in the head with a hammer. General Henry Lee was beaten senseless, and his injuries probably contributed to his death several years later. Hanson, the publisher of the Federal Republican, survived, but was also severely beaten. One of Hansons associates, John Thompson, was beaten by the mob, dragged through the streets, and tarred and feathered. Lurid accounts of the Baltimore riot were printed in American newspapers. People were particularly shocked by the killing of James Lingam, who had been wounded while serving as an officer in the Revolutionary War and had been a friend of George Washington. Following the riot, tempers cooled in Baltimore. Alexander Hanson moved to Georgetown, on the outskirts of Washington, D.C., where he continued to publish a newspaper denouncing the war and mocking the government. Opposition to the war continued in some parts of the country. But over time the debate cooled off and more patriotic concerns, and a desire to defeat the British, took precedence. At the end of the war, Albert Gallatin, the nations treasury secretary, expressed a belief that the war had unified the nation in many ways, and had lessened a focus on purely local or regional interests. Of the American people at the end of the war, Gallatin wrote: They are more Americans; they feel and act more as a nation; and I hope that the permanency of the Union is thereby better secured. Regional differences, of course, would remain a permanent part of American life. Before the war had officially ended, legislators from the New England states gathered at the Hartford Convention and argued for changes in the U.S. Constitution. The members of the Hartford Convention were essentially federalists who had opposed the war. Some of them argued that states which had not wanted the war should split from the federal government. The talk of secession, more than four decades before the Civil War, did not lead to any substantial action. The official end of the War of 1812 with the Treaty of Ghent occurred and the ideas of the Hartford Convention faded away. Later events, events such as the Nullification Crisis, the prolonged debates about slavery in America, the secession crisis, and the Civil War  still pointed to regional splits in the nation. But Gallatins larger point, that the debate over the war ultimately bound the country together, had some validity.

MS Flight Simulator Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MS Flight Simulator - Research Paper Example Bruce Artwick started its development in 1977 and put it on the market for a range of computers with his company subLOGIC. Artwicks company certified Microsoft  a version of Flight Simulator known as  Microsoft Flight Simulator 1.00 in 1982 (Grupping, 2007). The Microsoft Flight Simulator gives its users the realistic experience of flying a plane. The aviation industry is making great use of the system for design and development and by training pilots and other flight deck crews in both military and civil aircraft (Anonymous, 2005). The newest versions, Microsoft Flight Simulator 2004  and  Microsoft Flight Simulator X, gratify pilots, would-be pilots and individuals who had dreamt of being pilots in similar fashion. While playing these, the new users can be frustrated due to its reality-based complex and difficult nature. But it can be rewarding for those who are skilled flight simmer. The latest versions also include enhanced weather simulation, alongside the ability to download real-world weather data and diverse air traffic environment with interactive  Air Traffic Control, player-flyable aircraft, interactive lessons and challenges, and finally aircraft checklists. Furthermore, there is availability of, both free and commercial upgrades and add-ons for flexibility and scope (Lackey,

Project Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Project Control - Essay Example Technical changes are the alterations of the project scope. Market changes are the changes made so that the project adapts to the changing external market conditions such as regulatory changes and development of new products by competitors (Kerzner, 2001). Contractual changes include the changes made on the contract with the stakeholder involved in the project. The management should prevent uncontrollable changes because they have a negative impact on the project. Implementation of change control can be done using specific procedures. One of the procedures is to conduct impact analysis. In this case, the likely impact of the uncontrollable changes is assessed. In this stage proposed changes are provided and they are analysed in relation to the impact of the changes in order to determine whether they are within or outside the scope of the project requirements. The second step is to determine the financial requirements of the changes. This will determine whether the changes can be implemented using the available financial resources. Thirdly, the management should find out the reason why the change is needed (Stare, 2001). It should determine the business need for the changes and establish whether the business will benefit from the changes if implemented successfully. In the next fourth step, the company should analyse the challenges and constraints that may be faced when implementing the changes. This will enable the management team to be prepa red for any of the challenges and risks and be able to tackle them appropriately. In terms of project quality evaluation, the management should evaluate and communicate whether the project is meeting any stated performance and quality objectives of the management. This is done through comparison of the planned quality standards and the quality outcome of the project. Evaluation of the project quality also involves checking whether specific tasks of the project have been

CAPM ana Capital Budgeting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CAPM ana Capital Budgeting - Essay Example The estimation of the cost of capital in turn is based upon the CAPM. However, not only does recent discourses in academic literature challenge the validity of the CAPM model, there is lack of consensus regarding the adequate measure of the market risk premium, a central input required for computing the cost of capital using the CAPM. However, in spite of these short comings, the CAPM has survived as the predominant quantitative model in its class for over 40 years since its inception. It is precisely this paradox the paper in concern addresses. In particular, Jagannathan and Meler (2002) offer an explanation to the following question: in spite of the various short comings of the CAPM model in computing the cost of capital, why do majority of managers report using the model to make critical decisions? The answer they offer is that in the real world, computing the exact cost of capital may not be crucial for optimal decisions. Hence, although the CAPM may not provide the exact value o f cost of capital, but it still remains useful for managers. Assuming rationed organizational and managerial capital which implies that not all projects with positive NPVs can be invested in, the paper shows that utilizing a hurdle rate greater than the cost of capital and the typical NPV computations, the value of waiting for an option can be accounted for. Therefore, the exact value of cost of capital no longer remains an imperative for optimal decisions. The idea that discounting values are set much higher than the cost of capital has significant support in financial literature. Stein (2001) for instance shows that aspects like agency costs arising out of asymmetric informational situations among share owners and managers leads to setting of discount rates that are much higher than the actual cost of capital. Empirical literature also lends further support to the claim by establishing the existence of a large number of hurdle rates that are set higher than the cost of capital (Po terba and Summers, 1995). Truong, Partington and Peat (2008) have also established that there are a number of hurdle rates used in the capital budgeting procedure in Australia. The critiques of using CAPM in capital budgeting fundamentally stem from two particular difficulties. First, the time horizon of the basic model is limited to a single period. But in reality, investment appraisals of firms typically involve decision making over multiple periods. Thus, this raises the question of applicability of the CAPM in investment appraisal in the real world. Secondly, computing discount rates specific to particular projects can prove difficult owing to for instance, difficulties arising in identification of appropriate proxy betas as proxy companies usually undertake multiple activities simultaneously. Disentangling the beta specific to a project may prove near impossible because these require certain information that may be extremely difficult to obtain. (Head, 2008) Additionally, it ha s been shown that although the NPV criterion can be utilized to make accept/reject decisions, these are valid and optimal only if the discount rate is not computed using the CAPM (Magni, 2009). In light of the discussion above what emerges essentially is that the CAPM generates estimates of cost of capital

Social interaction and how we rapidly forms impressions

Social interaction and how we rapidly forms impressions Human beings are social creatures. Our interaction with another is important as it provides us with a vast amount of information necessary to carry out daily activities. With the amount of information that is available to us at one time, the human mind has naturally developed shortcuts that allow us to function more efficiently in a social world. One function of human interaction is the ability to make rapid assessments about other people. We often form impressions about people within seconds of meeting them. Impressions of personality form quickly and easily. It is quite hard to forget our impression of a person once it has been formed in our minds. These impressions form automatically and instantly provide us with important information about others. Then, this information provides us with a foundation on which we make additionally judgments and effects future attitudes about an individual. This ability to form rapid impressions of people is neither bad nor good. According to Asch (1946), it is simply a precondition of social life. Concerning social psychologists in particular are questions regarding the manner in which our impressions of other people are established, and what are the principles that regulate the formation of these impressions. It has been found in social psychological research, that impressions of personality can be influenced by certain cognitive biases. An excellent example of a cognitive bias that influences our perception of personality of others is the halo effect. The halo effect is a cognitive bias that occurs when the perception of one trait of a person or object influences the perception of another trait or multiple traits. Thorndike (1920) was the first to support the theory of the halo effect using empirical research. Commanding officers were asked to use a rating scale to assess traits of their soldiers. The results of his study showed a high cross-correlation between positive and negative traits (Thorndike, 1920), which suggests that people do not think of others in mixed terms, but rather as generally good or bad across different categories of measurement. Primarily, the halo effect biases our perception with a tendency to focus mainly on the good. A classic example would be judging a good-looking person as more sociable or more intelligent. Another example would be perceiving an individuals personality differently based on information given about that person. This includes influencing expectations of another person through the use of interchangeable adjectives. An overwhelming amount of research supports the notion that describing a strangers personality using particular words can significantly affect the way that person is perceived by others (Asche, 1946; Mensh Wishner; 1947; Kelley, 1950; Biggs McAllaster; 1981; Widmeyer Loy, 1988). A strangers disposition can be perceived to match up to the personality traits previously stated, despite the actual nature of the person. Influential Social Psychological Research Over sixty years ago, Asch (1946) demonstrated that certain labels can affect the entire impression of a person. Asch read a list of adjectives which were supposed to describe a hypothetical person. His subjects who were all college students (mostly women) were then asked to characterize that person. Asch found that by simply using interchangeable adjectives representing central qualities, such as warm and cold, he could influence the descriptions given by subjects about the personality of a hypothetical person. However, it was also found that including words to describe peripheral qualities, including terms such as polite or blunt, did not have a significant effect on subjects perceptions of the personality of the hypothetical person. A number of the Asch experiments were replicated by Mensh and Wishner (1947) to determine if the results of Aschs experiment were population specific. In their study, they used subjects that were a mix of both male and female students. Furthermore, they took measures to make sure that subjects were graduate and undergraduate students, and they also selected subjects from different geographical locations. Despite Mensh and Wishners modifications to Aschs experiments, the findings in Aschs study were effectively confirmed and reinforced by Mensh and Wishner (1947). Aschs experimental work was also extended by Kelley (1950) who demonstrated that the warm/cold manipulation extends to actual people, as well. That is, Kelley found that this warm/cold manipulation effected subjects perception of a person with whom they had actually encountered, instead of just a hypothetical person whom they had never met. In Kelleys study, a man posing as guest lecturer was introduced to subjects in a neutral manner. Later, one of two notes about the stimulus person were randomly distributed to subjects. One note contained a description of him as being rather warm, while the other note described him as rather cold. Then, the guest lecturer proceeded to give a 20-min discussion to the subjects, while the verbal interaction that between the subjects and the stimulus person was recorded. The recording of the subjects interaction with the instructor was novel, because according to Kelley (1950), no previous studies reported had dealt with the importance of first impres sions for behavior (Kelley, 1950). After the discussion, subjects were asked to rate the personality of the stimulus person on 15 different scales that were predetermined. In addition to rating the stimulus person, subjects were also asked to write free descriptions of him, as well. It was by observing the interaction between the subjects and the stimulus person that Kelley found support for the autistic hostility hypothesis (Newcomb, 1947). The autistic hostility hypothesis states that when someone perceives another individual as cold, that person will limit his or her interactions with the cold person. It was observed by Kelley that students who were in the warm group engaged in discussions more freely and more frequently than those in the cold group (Kelley, 1950). Like Asch, Kelley found that subjects total impression of a person is significantly influenced by the attribution of a central quality such as warmth. Kelleys results showed that subjects who were given preinformation describing him as warm, gave him consistently better ratings on multiple personal attributes than did those who were given preinformation describing the stimulus person as cold. Furthermore, Kelly found that 56% of the warm subjects actively participated in the discussion, as opposed to only 32% of the cold subjects. These studies conducted by Kelley (1950) and Asch (1946) are important because they were both novel and influential. Their early studies stimulated a considerable amount of research concerning the perception of people, specifically a study by Widmeyer Loy (1988). They designed their study with the primary intent to determine whether or not Kelleys warm/cold effect could be replicated in a classroom setting 35 years later. More specifically, they examined the effects of warm/cold manipulation on first impressions of individuals and their teaching ability. In Widmeyer Loys study (1988), a man posing as a guest lecturer gave a neutral lecture to 140 male and 100 female college students. Before the lecture, as in Kelleys study, forms were randomly distributed to subjects describing the instructor. One half of the group received information describing him as rather cold, while the other group received information describing him as rather warm. To half of each of these groups, the stimulus person was said to teach physical education, while the other half of these groups were told that he taught social psychology classes. Following the stimulus persons 40-min lecture, subjects evaluated his personality and teaching ability though a Likert scale and through additional written comments. Results showed that subjects who were told the stimulus person was rather warm rated his personality and his teaching ability more positively than did subjects who were told he was rather cold. Additionally, it was found that the manipulations of both discipl inary status of the instructor and the sex of the subjects had no significant influence on subjects ratings of the stimulus persons teaching ability. Research done by Asch, Kelley, and others is strongly supported by the findings of a similar study conducted by Biggs McAllaster using warm/cold manipulation (1981). In this study, it was found that subjects who were told that a guest lecturer was warm tended to evaluate that person as more favorable than subjects who were led to believe he or she was cold. Additionally, the use of the neutral group (one that was told that the speaker was neither warm nor cold) also helped to reinforce the findings of Asch (Biggs McAllaster, 1981), which will be discussed in further depth along with some interesting novel occurrences within the experiment. Critical Review of Research The studies conducted by Asch, Mensh Wishner, Kelley, Biggs McAllaster, and Widmeyer Loy are similar in ways that link them together and give them the ability to use modifications in order to add to existing research. It is because of these modifications that they all contain important differences that extend the level of research to a new level. One important similarity is that they use all warm/cold modification to discover if subjects total impression of a person is influenced by the attribution of a central quality such as warmth or coldness. All studies found that this modification of adjectives did affect the way the stimulus person was perceived by subjects. Additionally, four out of the five studies use a male as a stimulus person. Interestingly, Biggs McAllister (1981) intentionally uses him or her when discussing the stimulus person. This raises an important question regarding the sex of the stimulus person. Would subjects rating across multiple characteristics such as personality and teaching ability differ if the stimulus person used was a female? It might be interesting to see how a female instructor might be rated by female subjects, and also by male subjects, as well. Another variation of this experiment might seek to investigate the length of the description of the instructor provided to the subjects. It might be interesting to examine whether a longer description would increase or decrease the differences between the cold ratings and the warm ratings. In a longer description, for example, the word warm or cold might be glossed over given the larger amount of information being provided or ultimately missed all together. It is possible, however, that people might accidently read only certain words that help them to form an impression of the stimulus person due to an overload of too much information. Varying the length of the description could be another possible modification of these experiments. It should also be noted that while the study conducted by Asch (1946) found that the use of interchangeable adjectives could influence the descriptions given by subjects about the personality of a hypothetical person, Kelley (1950) found that this warm/cold manipulation effected subjects perception of a person with whom they had actually encountered, instead of just a hypothetical person. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, no previous studies reported had dealt with the importance of first impressions for behavior according to Kelley (1950). This made Kelleys recording of the subjects interaction with the instructor quite novel, as it had not been reported to have been done by a previous study. Widmeyer Loy (1988) sought to modify and extend Kelleys work in three specific ways which will be discussed below. Since Kelleys study only examined teaching performance indirectly by looking at whether the observers expectation of the instructor was favorable or not, Widmeyer Loy tried to determine whether warm/cold manipulation would affect subjects impression of the instructors teaching ability specifically. Secondly, according to Wilson (1968), an instructors perceived status has an influence on subjects perception of an instructor. For example, physical education is likely to be seen as being less academically prestigious than other disciplines that are more traditional (Seater Jacobson, 1976). These finding were of particular interest to Widmeyer Loy who wanted to determine whether the labels of physical education professor and social psychology professor would have different influences on subjects judgments on an instructors teaching performance, and on their central and peripheral personality traits, respectively. They found, however, that the disciplinary status of the instructor had no significant effect on subjects ratings of the stimulus person. Thirdly, based on evidence that suggests male and female college students assess college-level instructors differently (Lombardo Tocci, 1979), Widmeyer Loy were interested in the sex of the subjects. The subjects in Aschs study were mostly female college students, while Kelleys study included only male college students. Just as Biggs McAllister intentionally used gender-neutral terms when discussing the stimulus person, the sex of the subjects was also went unreported. Widmeyer Loy specifically made efforts to determine if male and female subjects were influenced differently by the preinformation given about the instructor, in regards to the warm/cold variable, by using a mixture of both male and female college students as subjects. It should be noted that Mensh Wishner (1947), seeking to extend on the original research of Asch, also used subjects that were a mix of both male and female students, but despite their modifications to Aschs experiments, the findings in Mensh Wishne r showed that subject sex had significant influence on subjects impression of the stimulus person. Despite the finding that the manipulations of disciplinary status and the sex of subjects has no significant effect on subject ratings (Widmeyer Loy, 1988), effects were found in regard to perceptions of personality and perceptions of teaching ability. In regard to the warm/cold manipulation, significant effects were reported. More specifically, subjects who were told that the stimulus person was warm, perceived him (with regard to personality) as less unpleasant, more sociable, less irritable, less ruthless, more humorous, less formal, and more human compared to subjects to were led to believe that has was a cold person (Widmeyer Loy, 1988). Additionally, in regard to perceptions of teaching ability, it was found that subjects who were told that the stimulus person was rather warm perceived him to be more intelligent, more interesting, more considerate of the class, and more knowledgeable of his material than subjects who were given information that the instructor was cold. These findings strongly support previous research in a number of ways. First, they confirm the hypothesis that the attribution of the central quality of warmth greatly influences the overall impression of subjects on the personality of the instructor. These results also lend support to Kelleys observation that the size of this effect seems to depend upon the closeness of relation between the specific dimension of any given rating scale and the central quality of warmth or coldness' (Kelley, 1950). In other words, it was asserted by Kelley that the warm/cold manipulation does not have an equal influence on all variables. In the studies conducted by Asch, Kelly, Biggs McAllastar, and Widmeyer Loy found that being sociable, humorous and considerate were positively related to warmth, while being proud ruthless and irritable were negatively related to warmth. It was also found that being proud, self-assured and dominant were not related to warmth at all. The discovery that the warm/cold manipulation affects the ratings of some characteristics more than others supports an assertion made by Kelley concerning the extent of the halos effects influence. Kelley states that, the effect cannot be explained altogether on the basis of a simple halo effect (Kelley, 1950). The pattern found by Widmeyer Loy with regard to the differential effects across 12 common scales is similar to the patterns found by both Asch Kelley. This pattern lends support to the explanation given by Kelley of how the effect is dependent on the closeness of the characteristic being rated to the quality of warmth (Kelley, 1950). Any discrepancies in the findings of Widmeyer Loy that do not parallel the patterns in the other studies, lend support to an idea asserted by Mensh Wishners (1947) that depending on the context, the strength of the effect of the warm/cold manipulation can vary. For example, formality was not related to warmth in Widmeyer Loy, while it was related in Kelleys investigation. Biggs McAllister (1981). Using warm/cold manipulation, subjects who were told that a guest lecturer was warm tended to evaluate that person as more favorable than subjects who were led to believe he or she was cold. Additionally, the use of the neutral group (one that was told that the speaker was neither warm nor cold) also helped to reinforce the findings of Asch (Biggs McAllister, 1981). More specifically, the warm/cold comparison made it possible for Biggs McAllister to replicate Kelleys experiment, while the addition of the neutral group allowed them to make sure that other words in the biography were not contributing to differences in the evaluations between the warm and cold groups, as Asch did in his study. Something else that should be taken into consideration is the lecture or discussion led by the stimulus person. In Asch and Mensh Wishners experiments the person described was merely hypothetical, so there was no lecture or discussion. In Biggs McAllisters (1981) study, the stimulus person used was real as opposed to hypothetical. This stimulus person gave a lecture as opposed to an interactive discussion, but not amount of time was reported regarding the length of the lecture given. In Kelleys experiment, the stimulus person led the class in a 20-min discussion and subject verbal interaction was recorded. In Widmeyer Loys experiment, however, the stimulus person gave a 40-min lecture to the subjects, and there was no reported subject interaction with the lecturer. Discussions can vary in formality and the comfort-level of the atmosphere can be influenced, while lectures do not tend to vary as much in these respects. It could be possible that one of these conditions could be easie r or harder for the stimulus to demonstrate intelligence and knowledge of the subject. Also, it may be the case that subject interaction with the instructor could provide a different foundation on which subjects base personality ratings and ratings regarding teaching ability. As previously mention, there were some interesting occurrences within the Biggs McAllaster (1981) experiment. There were two occurrences in particular that should be noted. First, some students realized later, after talking to each other, that some descriptions of the instructor contained the world warm, while others contained the word cold. What was interesting, though, was that one subject later told the instructor that the cold groups description of contained words such as vicious and unforgiving, as well as other negative thing that were not included in the description. It seems that in the perception of the instructors personality, the word cold became combined with extra negative characteristics. The second occurrence to be noted is that one individual from the class felt that she did not have sufficient information to rate the instructor. Her refusal to finish the questionnaire was turned into a positive point of discussion in this study because it demonstrated that her decis ion regarding the personality of the instructor did not have to be made based solely on the information that was provided. Conclusion Each of these studies replicates, modifies, and/or extends the original Asch study pertaining to warm/cold manipulation in a variety of ways. They all lend support to hypothesis that a subject who is told that another person, whether real or hypothetical, is warm will tend to evaluate the stimulus person more favorably than another person who is led to believe he or she is cold. These studies demonstrate how easily first impressions are formed despite limited or even invalid information. Additionally, the experiments can be used to discuss trait theories of personality perhaps and why it would be important to be careful when make predictions based on single traits. Furthermore, the error in cognition referred to as the halo effect can be pointed out since the evaluator is making generalizations about a person from a single personality trait. It is noteworthy that personality characteristics as well as teaching abilities can be influenced by the halo effect. By being perceived as a wa rm person, an instructor would be able to influence students rating of his or her personality as well as teaching abilities. When considering the role that students evaluations of their instructors play in regard to tenure and promotions, these findings have considerable implications within the educations system. Teachers who would like to get ahead, for example, should present themselves being warm. It is possible that students expectations of professors can be influenced by student ratings. These expectations can, in turn, have an influence on the attitude and behavior of the instructor. Thus, these studies have significant educational implications.

Hidden Curriculum Essay -- essays research papers

Hidden Curriculum   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Education is designed to serve many purposes towards the youths of today. It teaches the youth how to be better people and it prepares them for life. Education teaches its pupils knowledge in more that one way, by looking at life in different directions. There is a curriculum that is taught by the teachers and the textbooks, and in addition to the standard schooling there is also a â€Å"hidden curriculum.† Gatto and Rose each have their own style of teaching and learning and their articles explain their unique styles. In college, high school, and even previous schooling, lessons are taught that enforce hidden instruction, but the students that succeed are the ones that recognize this and learn from it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the article â€Å"The Seven-Lesson Schoolteacher,† written by the teacher John Taylor Gatto, he sarcastically talks about how he secretly teaches his students lessons in life without their knowing. His messages teach important things in life such as patience and organization. Gatto’s lessons like these are important for people to learn in school, but they cannot be taught out of a book or in a lesson. He believes these types of lessons must be taught to children within hidden messages to make it easier to learn. Gatto is speaking the truth when he says that the lesson plans of teachers contain much hidden curriculum. For example, Gatto jokingly says that he teaches confusion as one of these mysterious le...